1.1 随机事件 Random Events
在一定条件下,可能发生也可能不发生的事件称为随机事件(random event)。
An event that may or may not happen under certain conditions is called a random event.
- 必然事件:在条件下一定会发生的事件(如:太阳每天东升)
- 不可能事件:在条件下绝对不会发生的事件(如:掷骰子得到7点)
- 随机事件:可能发生也可能不发生(如:明天是晴天)
1.2 概率的定义 Definition of Probability
在等可能性假设下,事件 A 发生的概率定义为:
Under the assumption of equally likely outcomes, the probability of event A is defined as:
概率的性质:
- 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1 (概率在0和1之间)Probability is always between 0 and 1
- P(A) = 0 不可能事件 Impossible event
- P(A) = 1 必然事件 Certain event
Key to probability: ① identify all equally likely outcomes; ② count favorable ones. Don't double-count!
2.1 等可能事件 Equally Likely Events
当所有结果出现的机会相等时(如掷骰子、抛硬币),概率可以直接用分子÷分母来计算:
When all outcomes are equally likely (coin toss, die roll), probability is favorable ÷ total:
举例:掷一枚均匀骰子,点数为偶数的概率?
样本空间:{1,2,3,4,5,6},共6个等可能结果。
偶数点:{2,4,6},共3个。
P(偶数) = 3/6 = 1/2
2.2 互斥事件与加法法则 Mutually Exclusive Events & Addition Rule
如果两个事件不可能同时发生,则它们是互斥事件(互不相容)。
If two events cannot occur at the same time, they are mutually exclusive (disjoint).
举例:掷骰子,P(1或6) = P(1) + P(6) = 1/6 + 1/6 = 1/3
If events can both occur, use inclusion-exclusion: P(A∪B) = P(A)+P(B)−P(A∩B).
3.1 几何概率 Geometric Probability
当有利结果可以用面积(或长度)的比值来表示时,就是几何概率:
When favorable outcomes can be expressed as a ratio of areas (or lengths), we have geometric probability:
举例:在边长为4的正方形中随机投一点,点落在内切圆中的概率?
正方形面积 = 16,圆的面积 = π×2² = 4π,P = 4π/16 = π/4 ≈ 0.785
3.2 多次独立试验 Independent Trials
当多个试验相互独立时,组合事件的概率等于各事件概率的乘积:
When multiple trials are independent, the probability of the combined event equals the product of individual probabilities:
举例:抛两枚硬币,都正面朝上的概率?
P(正正) = P(正) × P(正) = 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4
Independent = one doesn't affect the other. Mutually exclusive = can't both happen.
抛一枚均匀硬币3次,恰好有2次正面的概率是多少?A fair coin is tossed 3 times. What is P(exactly 2 heads)?
恰好2次正面:HHT, HTH, THH → 3种
P = 3/8 Sample space: 8 outcomes. Exactly 2 heads: HHT, HTH, THH → 3 outcomes. P = 3/8.
掷一枚均匀骰子,点数为1或3的概率是多少?A fair die is rolled. What is P(1 or 3)?
1和3不可能同时出现,所以是互斥事件,直接相加。 P(1 or 3) = P(1) + P(3) = 1/6 + 1/6 = 1/3. Mutually exclusive events.
袋中有3红2白共5球,不放回摸2次,第1次红且第2次白的概率?From 3 red + 2 white balls, draw twice without replacement. P(red then white)?
P(第2次白|第1次取走红) = 2/4(4球中2白)
P(红且白) = 3/5 × 2/4 = 6/20 = 3/10 P(red first) = 3/5. P(white second|red first) = 2/4. P = 3/5 × 2/4 = 3/10.
从52张扑克牌中随机抽一张,抽到"A"的概率是多少?From 52 cards, what is P(ace)?
P(A) = 4/52 = 1/13 4 aces in 52 cards. P(ace) = 4/52 = 1/13.
在边长为6的正方形中随机投一点,点落在以一边为直径的半圆内(含边界)的概率约为?(π≈3.14)In a 6×6 square, point chosen at random. P(inside the semicircle)?
半圆直径 = 6,半径 = 3
半圆面积 = (1/2)×π×3² = (1/2)×π×9 = 4.5π ≈ 14.13
P = 4.5π / 36 ≈ 14.13 / 36 ≈ 0.39 Square = 36. Semicircle radius = 3. Area = (1/2)π(3)² = 4.5π ≈ 14.13. P = 14.13/36 ≈ 0.39.
第1题 袋中有5红3白共8球,摸到白球的概率?5 red, 3 white balls. P(white)?
第2题 掷骰子,点数大于4的概率?A die is rolled. P(greater than 4)?
第3题 同时抛两枚均匀硬币,至少有一个正面的概率?Two fair coins tossed. P(at least one head)?
第4题 52张牌中抽一张,抽到红桃或"A"的概率?(红桃A只计一次)52 cards. P(heart or ace)? (Ace of hearts counted once)
第5题 连续抛一枚硬币3次,全是同一面(HHH或TTT)的概率?Coin tossed 3 times. All the same (HHH or TTT). What is P?
第6题 袋中有2红3蓝1绿共6球,摸到绿球的概率?2 red, 3 blue, 1 green = 6 balls. P(green)?
第7题 掷两个骰子,点数之和为7的概率?Two dice rolled. P(sum equals 7)?
第8题 100件产品中5件次品,随机抽一件,抽到正品的概率?100 items, 5 defective. Randomly pick 1. P(good)?